Structural Basics: Loads, Bracing & Shear

Written for Canada. Loads on buildings are set by NBC 2020 Part 4 (structural design) and Part 9 uses tables built from them. This section explains the ideas so the drawings make sense. It is not a design guide. Design comes from the code tables or from an engineer. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Every building has to hold up its own weight, the weight of people and furniture, snow, and the push of wind and earthquake. Understanding loads and how they travel explains why framing rules exist, and why cutting the wrong member is dangerous.

Types of Load

• Dead load: the weight of the building itself: framing, sheathing, roofing, finishes.
• Live load: people, furniture and things that move in and out.
• Snow load: depends on location and roof shape. Provincial and municipal tables give the design values.
• Wind load: pushes on walls and pulls on roofs. Higher on open sites and tall buildings.
• Seismic load: the sideways force when the ground shakes, important on the west coast and in the east.

The Load Path

Loads travel from the roof to the rafters or trusses, to the walls, to the beams and posts, to the foundation and then to the soil. Anything that breaks the line, such as a post that stops on a joist, makes the next member carry load it was not made for.

Bracing and Shear

• Why bracing is needed: a wall of studs and plates racks like a parallelogram under side load. Bracing or sheathing stops the racking.
• Sheathing as bracing: structural sheathing nailed to the pattern is the usual brace in a house. Part 9 gives nail size and edge spacing: Confirm in your edition.
• Hold-downs and anchors: keep the wall from lifting off the foundation and tie the floors to the walls. Use the connector the drawing shows.
• Continuous ties: the floor and roof diaphragms must be tied to the walls so the whole building acts as one box.

Why You Cannot Cut or Drill Anywhere

• Beams and joists: fibres on the top edge are in compression and on the bottom edge in tension. A cut across the bottom edge removes strength where it is needed most.
• Studs: drilling a stud more than the allowed amount in a loadbearing wall removes the area that holds the load. The code sets the hole size and edge distance: Confirm in your edition.
• Trusses: each member carries a calculated load. A cut or removed member shifts load to others that were not made to take it.

Wood and Moisture

• Shrinkage: wood shrinks across the grain as it dries, much more than along it. Mixed framing that stacks cross-grain lumber, such as a thick rim joist, shows it.
• Movement joints: allow for movement where finishes meet framing.
• Keep it dry: wet framing grows mould and loses strength. Cover, dry and ventilate.

Reading the Engineer

• Stamped drawings: override the tables. Follow every note, nailing pattern and connector.
• Questions: ask the engineer before changing a member. A call is cheaper than a repair.

Common Mistakes

• Treating bracing as optional until the drywall is on
• Removing a stud, plate or brace in a shear wall without an engineer
• Using fewer nails than the sheathing pattern asks for
• Leaving out a hold-down or anchor the drawing shows
• Cutting a beam or truss for a pipe
• Ignoring a post that stops mid-air
• Letting framing get soaked and then closing it in

Wood Framing: Lumber, Sheet Goods & Fasteners

Written for Canada. Wood-frame construction in NBC 2020 Part 9 is Section 9.23. It sets the minimum sizes, spacing, fasteners and sheathing for houses and small buildings, and it points to Canadian standards for lumber and panels (CSA O141 for softwood lumber, CSA O325 for construction sheathing, CSA O86 for engineered design). Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Good framing starts with good material. Straight, dry, correctly graded lumber and the right fasteners make every later step easier. Bowed, wet or wrong-grade stock makes walls crooked, drywall crack and inspectors write corrections. This section covers what is in the stack, how to read it, how to store it, and what holds it together.

Dimensional Lumber

Framing lumber in Canada is sold by nominal size but built to a smaller dressed size. Always use the real size in layout and calculations.

• 2x4: 38 x 89 mm. The standard interior stud and the minimum exterior stud in many Part 9 cases.
• 2x6: 38 x 140 mm. Common exterior stud for insulated walls, and a small joist or rafter.
• 2x8: 38 x 184 mm. Joists, rafters and headers.
• 2x10: 38 x 235 mm. Floor joists, headers and beams.
• 2x12: 38 x 286 mm. Long-span joists, rafters and headers.
• 4x4 and 6x6: 89 x 89 mm and 140 x 140 mm. Posts and some beams.

Species and Grades

Lumber is graded under the National Lumber Grades Authority rules (NLGA) and manufactured to CSA O141. The grade stamp is your first quality check.

• Species: spruce-pine-fir (SPF) is the most common across Canada. Douglas fir-larch and hem-fir are common in the west. Species change the allowed spans, so match the species on the drawings.
• Grade: No.1 and No.2 are the usual framing grades. Studs may be a separate "stud grade". Select Structural is for demanding spans. The drawings or tables name the minimum grade.
• The stamp: shows the grade, the species group, the mill, the grading agency and the moisture condition. S-DRY means surfaced dry (19 percent moisture or less). S-GRN means surfaced green.
• Crown: most boards have a slight bow. Mark the crown and set joists and rafters crown up, and studs with the crown in the same direction in a wall.

Moisture and Storage

• Use dry lumber: framing lumber should be S-DRY. Lumber that is wet when framed shrinks as it dries, mostly across the grain, and can cause nail pops, cracked drywall and uneven floors.
• Stack it flat: store off the ground on level supports with stickers between layers so air moves through.
• Cover it: keep rain and snow off the top, but do not wrap the stack tight. Trapped moisture grows mould.
• Keep sheet goods dry: panels swell at the edges if they sit wet. Keep them flat, off the ground and covered.

Treated Lumber

• Where it is needed: wood that touches concrete, soil or ground-contact in a way the code or the drawings call out (for example sill plates on a foundation) is preservative-treated. Treated wood is covered by the CSA O80 series.
• Fasteners and connectors: use hot-dip galvanized or stainless steel fasteners and connectors rated for treated wood. Plain steel corrodes quickly in treated lumber.
• Field cuts: brush preservative on cut ends and drilled holes.
• Handling: wear gloves, and do not burn treated offcuts.

Sheet Goods

• Plywood and OSB: CSA O121 (Douglas fir plywood), CSA O151 (Canadian softwood plywood) and CSA O325 (construction sheathing) cover the panels used for subfloors, wall sheathing and roof sheathing. OSB is made to CSA O437.
• Size: most panels are 1220 x 2440 mm (4 x 8 ft).
• Thickness and rating: the panel mark shows the span rating. Part 9 sets minimum thicknesses by support spacing. For subfloor on 400 mm supports the minimum is 15.5 mm for plywood or OSB, and 18.5 mm on 600 mm supports (Confirm in your edition).
• Edges: tongue-and-groove edges on subfloor give edge support. Leave the gap the panel maker specifies (usually 3 mm) at panel edges for expansion.

Fasteners

• Nails: common, spiral and ring-shank nails come in standard lengths such as 63 mm (2-1/2 in), 76 mm, 82 mm (3-1/4 in) and 89 mm (3-1/2 in). Part 9 lists the size and number for each joint in its nailing schedule (Table 9.23.3.4 in the BC edition; Confirm the number in yours).
• Screws: structural screws and construction screws are used for ledgers, beams, steel framing and where nails are not allowed. Use the type the drawing names.
• Staples and cap nails: used for sheathing and barriers. Follow the table for size and spacing.
• Pneumatic nailers: set the depth so the head sits flush. An overdriven nail loses much of its holding power and fails the inspection.
• Adhesive: construction adhesive on subfloor joists reduces squeaks. It does not replace nails.

Connectors and Hardware

Hangers, straps, tie-downs, post bases and hold-downs transfer load from one member to the next. Use only the connector the drawings or the engineer name, with the fasteners the connector manufacturer specifies, in every hole that is required.

Common Mistakes

• Reading the nominal size as the real size when calculating
• Framing with wet or twisted lumber, then fighting drywall cracks later
• Storing lumber on the ground or sealing it in plastic
• Using plain steel fasteners or hangers in treated lumber
• Substituting nails that are shorter or smaller than the schedule
• Leaving out hanger nails or using the wrong nail in a hanger
• Overdriving nails with the gun set too hard

Fasteners, Nailing & Connectors

Written for Canada. Nailing and connector rules for houses and small buildings are in NBC 2020 Part 9, mainly Section 9.23 and its nailing tables. Engineered connectors follow the manufacturer's evaluation report and the engineer's drawings. Clause numbers change by edition, so Confirm in yours. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

A frame is only as strong as the way its pieces are joined. Lumber is rarely what fails. The nail that was left out, the wrong nail in a hanger, or a hold-down with the wrong bolt is what shows up in an inspection or in a storm. Fasteners are cheap, and the schedule for them is written down, so there is no reason to guess.

The Three Jobs a Fastener Does

• Hold pieces together: studs to plates, joists to rim, sheathing to framing.
• Carry load across a joint: hangers, ledgers, hold-downs and straps carry real weight and uplift.
• Resist sideways force: edge nailing in sheathing is what makes a wall or roof diaphragm stiff.

Common Fasteners

• Common and box nails: framing nails. Common nails are thicker and hold more. Box nails are thinner and split less. The nailing table and the connector maker say which and what length.
• Ring shank and spiral nails: hold better in withdrawal. Used in subfloors and some sheathing.
• Screws: structural screws replace bolts and lag screws in many ledgers and beam connections. Use only the type and length the drawing or evaluation report names.
• Bolts, nuts and washers: anchor bolts, beam to post connections and ledgers. Washers are needed under the nut on wood.
• Staples: allowed for some sheathing and subfloor uses at stated sizes. Confirm before using them for structure.
• Coatings: use hot-dip galvanized or stainless steel in treated lumber and in any wet or outdoor location. Plain steel corrodes quickly in treated wood. Confirm the coating rating with the lumber or connector maker.

Connectors That Carry Load

• Joist and beam hangers: every nail hole filled with the nail the maker names. Short nails or half-filled hangers are a common inspection failure.
• Hurricane and seismic ties: tie rafters and trusses to the wall plate against uplift.
• Straps and hold-downs: tie walls to floors and foundations. They come with a rod, bolt or screw size and a washer.
• Post bases and caps: hold the post off the concrete and keep it in line with the beam. Use ones rated for the load and the wood.
• Joist ties, blocking clips and angles: for ledgers, rim boards and engineered members.

How to Read a Nailing Schedule

1. Find the joint on the table: stud to plate, plate to joist, joist to rim, sheathing to framing, and so on.
2. Read the nail size, how many, and how they are driven (face, toe or end).
3. Check spacing along edges and in the field for sheathing. Roof and wall sheathing is commonly nailed at a closer spacing along the edges than in the field. Confirm the figures in your table and on the braced wall or shear wall drawing.
4. Never use fewer or smaller nails than the table or the drawing shows.

Nail Gun Habits That Pass Inspection

• Set the depth so the head sits flush with the surface. Overdriven nails reduce holding and bracing strength.
• Do not shoot through gaps, knots or the edge of a board.
• Keep nails 10 mm or more from the edge of a sheet and a stud unless the drawing says otherwise (Confirm).
• Do not use a gun with the wrong collation or nail length because it is on the truck.

Fastener Order of Operations

1. Read the drawing or evaluation report for the connector and the fastener.
2. Check the coating against the wood and the weather.
3. Fill every hole in a hanger or strap unless the maker says otherwise.
4. Check overdriven and missing nails before cover.
5. Photograph hold-downs and connectors before boards cover them.

Common Mistakes

• Using the wrong nail or leaving holes empty in hangers
• Plain steel fasteners in treated lumber or outdoors
• Overdriven nails in braced walls and shear walls
• Using a nail from the previous job because it was in the truck
• Substituting screws for bolts or the reverse without checking
• Skipping washers under nuts on wood
• Covering hold-downs before they were photographed or inspected

Wood Framing: Engineered Lumber, I-Joists & Trusses

Written for Canada. Engineered wood products are designed to CSA O86 and made to the manufacturer's approved design, not to the Part 9 span tables. Their installation instructions and the engineer's drawings are the rules. Part 9 of NBC 2020 still sets the connection, bearing and fire requirements around them. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

LVL beams, LSL rim boards, I-joists, glulam and roof trusses carry more load over longer spans than sawn lumber. They are also less forgiving. A hole in the wrong place, a notched flange or a missing hanger nail can fail a member that looks perfect from the floor. Follow the manufacturer's instructions as if they were law, because on the job they are.

Common Engineered Products

• LVL (laminated veneer lumber): thin wood veneers glued in layers. Used for beams, headers and long rafters. Sold in plies, often 44 mm thick, and nailed or bolted together to the engineer's pattern.
• LSL and rim board: strands of wood glued under pressure. Used for headers, rim boards and studs where the rim board must carry wall loads.
• Wood I-joists: OSB web between solid or laminated flanges. Light, stiff and long-spanning, with web holes allowed only in set zones.
• Glulam: glued laminated timber made to CSA O122. Used for large beams and posts.
• Roof and floor trusses: metal-plate-connected members built in a plant to an engineer's design for a given span, load and spacing.

Handling and Storage

• Carry I-joists and LVL on edge: do not carry them flat or drag them across the ground. Do not stack them flat on bunks that sag.
• Keep them dry: cover with a tarp. Wet engineered wood swells and can lose strength.
• Lift trusses with the right spreader: trusses are lifted by the top chord with spreader bars or slings, never by the peak alone and never flat. Lay them on blocking with the right side up.
• Store off the ground: on level bearers, with a slight slope to shed water.

I-Joist Rules of Thumb

• Install them plumb: I-joists tip if they are not braced. Nail the rim board or blocking and the temporary sheathing as the manufacturer shows.
• Bearing and web stiffeners: follow the bearing length, squash blocks and web stiffeners in the manufacturer's detail. Squash blocks under posts and bearing walls stop crushing.
• Holes: cut only where the chart allows. The chart gives a hole size and a minimum distance from the support. Never cut the flange.
• Hangers: use the hanger the drawing calls out, with every hole nailed to the hanger maker's table.
• Cantilevers and bearing walls: engineer-detailed only. Do not cantilever an I-joist without the drawing.

LVL and Beams

• Plies: nail or bolt plies together in the engineer's pattern. Wrong nail size, spacing or number is a common correction.
• Bearing: set the beam on the full bearing the drawing shows, on solid blocking or a post, with no gaps.
• Posts: a post must carry the load down to a footing or beam. Do not stop it on a joist or floor sheathing unless the engineer says so.
• Cutting: trim to length only. Never notch the top or bottom edge.

Roof Truss Basics

• Truss drawings: each truss has a design drawing from the manufacturer. Keep the stamped drawing on site.
• Handle and set: lift one truss at a time from the end bearing, brace each as it is set, and install the permanent bracing as shown. Walking on unbraced trusses is how people fall.
• Never alter a truss: do not cut a member, remove a web, drill a chord or hang load from a place the drawing does not allow. Fix damage only with an engineered repair.
• Girder trusses: carry other trusses and need the heavier hangers and bearing the drawing shows.
• Bracing: temporary bracing holds the trusses plumb and in line during the build. Permanent bracing is part of the truss design. Both are shown on the drawings or in the maker's guidance.

Common Mistakes

• Cutting an I-joist flange or drilling outside the hole zone
• Notching an LVL or a truss chord for a pipe or duct
• Setting trusses without temporary bracing
• Using the wrong hanger, or leaving nail holes empty
• Storing engineered lumber flat on the ground, uncovered
• Hanging a heavy load from a truss that was not designed for it
• Fixing a damaged truss without an engineered repair

Beams, Posts & Point Loads

Written for Canada. Beams, columns and bearing for houses and small buildings are covered by NBC 2020 Part 9, with beam and column sizes from the code span tables or from an engineer. Engineered lumber follows the manufacturer's design and installation guide. Confirm the tables in your edition. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

A beam picks up the load from floors and walls and carries it to the posts. A post carries the beam down to the footing. When either one is the wrong size, sits on the wrong support or has a gap at the bearing, the whole load path fails at that spot. These are the members you do not guess on.

The Load Path in One Picture

Beam Types

• Sawn lumber built-up beams: two to four boards nailed or bolted together, with joints placed over posts.
• LVL and glulam beams: engineered beams for long spans and heavy loads. Sold in set sizes and plies.
• Steel beams: wide flange or tube sections, sized by an engineer and supported on steel or wood posts.
• Flush beams and dropped beams: a flush beam sits in the depth of the joists. A dropped beam hangs below them. Check which one the drawing shows, because they bear differently.

Posts and Columns

• Wood posts: solid or built-up, from 89 x 89 mm up. Sized by height and load. A post must be at least as wide as the beam it carries unless a connector says otherwise.
• Steel columns: adjustable or fixed, with a base plate and a cap plate. Must be rated for the load and installed to the maker's instructions.
• Footings: sized for the load and the soil. A post stops on a footing or a footing pad, not on a slab edge or a joist.

Where Point Loads Go

1. Trace the load from the roof or floor above down to the foundation.
2. Match every post to a beam above and a footing below.
3. Add extra studs under beams in walls, and solid blocking through floors, so the load does not crush the plate.
4. Check bearing length at each end of the beam against the drawing.

Installing a Beam

1. Check the footing, post base and post height before the beam arrives.
2. Lift the beam on to temporary supports and check level and bearing.
3. Fasten the beam to the post cap or connector with the specified fasteners.
4. Check there is no gap at the bearing and no packing with shims or loose wood.
5. Install blocking or squash blocks where the load passes through the floor.
6. Leave the temporary shoring until the permanent supports are checked.

Notching and Drilling Beams

• Do not notch or drill sawn or engineered beams without written approval. A notch in the wrong place can cut the beam's strength in half.
• Run services around the beam or through the zones the engineer allows.

Common Mistakes

• Stopping a post on a joist, subfloor or slab edge
• A beam with a gap at the bearing
• Shims or loose packing in place of full bearing
• A post narrower than the beam without a connector
• Nailing a built-up beam where bolts were drawn
• Notching or drilling a beam for services
• Removing a bearing wall or post without shoring
• Missing squash blocks or extra studs under the load

Wood Framing: Layout & Setup

Written for Canada. Framing layout turns the drawings into lines on the deck. NBC 2020 Part 9 Section 9.23 sets the maximum stud and joist spacings (400 mm and 600 mm on centre), so the layout has to respect them. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Layout is where framing is won or lost. Walls that are laid out wrong cannot be fixed with a hammer. A careful hour with a chalk line, a tape and the plans saves a day of cutting later. This section covers site setup, snapping lines, plate layout and checking square before you build.

Site Setup

• Clear and level the deck: sweep it, check it is flat, and mark low spots. A bad deck shows up in every wall on it.
• Set up material: stage studs, plates, headers and sheathing near where they are used. Keep walkways clear.
• Read the plans: find wall types, openings, bearing walls, shear walls and engineered members, and mark them on the deck.
• Check the foundation: measure the diagonals and the outside dimensions before framing. If the foundation is out of square, tell the lead before the walls are cut.

Snapping Lines

1. Find the control lines: start from the foundation edge or a layout line from the plans. Snap the outside face of the walls.
2. Snap the inside lines: snap a second line one wall thickness in (89 mm for a 2x4 wall, 140 mm for a 2x6 wall, plus sheathing if the drawings call for it).
3. Square the corners: measure the diagonals. Equal diagonals mean the layout is square.
4. Mark opening lines: mark doors, windows and the centrelines of beams, posts and bearing walls.
5. Mark joist and rafter lines: snap and number floor and roof layout for later.

Plate Layout

Both plates of a wall are laid out together so every stud lines up top and bottom. Mark on the narrow face with a square line and an X on the side the stud goes.

• Stud spacing: 400 mm (16 in) or 600 mm (24 in) on centre in Part 9, as the drawings say. Many Canadian crews still lay out at 16 in or 24 in so that 1220 x 2440 mm sheets land on a stud. Confirm with your drawings and building department that your spacing is accepted.
• Layout from one end: start from a corner so sheathing edges land on a stud centre.
• Mark the openings: rough opening width, kings, jacks, header height and sill height from the window and door schedule.
• Add the extras: corners, wall intersections, backing for cabinets and rails, and extra studs under beams and posts.

Corners and Intersections

• Corner: every corner needs a stud (or studs) on each wall and a nailing surface inside for drywall. Use the layout in the drawings or an accepted detail.
• T intersections: add backing or a ladder block so the partition has a nailing surface.
• Insulation space: choose corner and intersection details that leave room for insulation, because cold corners cause condensation.

Check Before You Build

• Plate lengths: match the wall lengths on the plans.
• Stud count: count studs against the layout.
• Opening sizes: confirm every rough opening against the window and door schedule.
• Engineered members: confirm size, bearing and posts are in place.
• Alignment: studs line up with joists and rafters or trusses above and below where the plans call for it.

Common Mistakes

• Laying out from a crooked foundation without telling the lead
• Marking the stud on the wrong side of the line
• Using the rough opening from the unit on site instead of the schedule
• Forgetting backing and extra studs for cabinets, rails and beams
• Not matching layout to the sheathing so panel joints miss the studs
• Changing the layout on the deck without updating the plans

Wood Framing: Framing Mathematics

Written for Canada. Framing maths is the arithmetic behind a cut list: heights, lengths, counts and diagonals. Part 9 gives the limits (for example the maximum stud heights and spacings in Section 9.23), and the arithmetic below keeps your cuts inside them. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Framing math is not hard, but one slip means a wall that is too short or a stack of studs cut wrong. This section gives the formulas a framer uses every day, with metric numbers first. Check your result against the drawing, not just your calculator.

Wall Height

Total wall height is the sum of its parts.

• Bottom plate: 38 mm.
• Stud: the precut length. A common precut stud for an 8 ft ceiling is 2 337 mm (92-5/8 in).
• Double top plate: 2 x 38 = 76 mm.
• Total: 38 + 2 337 + 76 = 2 451 mm, about 2.45 m (8 ft 1/2 in).

To get a finished ceiling height, add the subfloor above the plate (if any), then subtract the thickness of the drywall and any ceiling finish.

Stud Length for a Given Ceiling Height

1. Decide the finished ceiling height (for example 2 438 mm, 8 ft).
2. Add the thickness of the ceiling finish (for example 12.7 mm drywall).
3. Subtract the bottom plate (38 mm) and the double top plate (76 mm).
4. Allow for the subfloor and floor finish if they are not in the plate height.
5. The result is the stud length. Round to the nearest precut or cut to length.

Rough Opening and Header Height

• Rough opening width: unit width plus about 12 mm (1/2 in) on each side (check the maker's rough opening on the schedule).
• Header height: window or door head height above the floor, plus the thickness of the header and the jack stud.
• Rough opening height: unit height plus 12 mm. Jack stud length is the rough opening height measured from the bottom plate (minus the sill if one is used) to the underside of the header.
• Cripple length: from the top of the header to the underside of the top plate, and from the top of the bottom plate to the underside of the sill.

Number of Studs

• Common studs: wall length divided by the spacing, plus one, plus extra for corners, intersections and openings.
• Example: a 6 000 mm wall at 400 mm on centre: 6 000 / 400 = 15, plus 1 = 16 studs, plus 2 extra at each corner and 3 at each intersection.

Diagonals and Squareness

• Pythagoras: for a rectangle with sides A and B, the diagonal is the square root of (A squared + B squared). For a wall 6 000 mm by 2 450 mm the diagonal is about 6 481 mm.
• 3-4-5: a right triangle with sides 3, 4 and 5 (900, 1 200 and 1 500 mm, or any multiple) gives a true square corner.
• Measuring: measure both diagonals from the same points on the same edge. If they match, the frame is square.

Floor Joist Layout

• Joist count: floor length divided by the spacing, plus one, plus extra for doubled joists, rim joists and blocking.
• Span and bearing: clear span plus bearing at each end (at least 38 mm in Part 9). Use the span table or the engineer's drawing.

Quantities and Waste

• Plates: wall length plus waste for cuts.
• Sheathing: wall area in square metres divided by the sheet area (2.98 square metres for a 1220 x 2440 mm panel), plus 10 percent waste. Subtract openings if you can reuse the cut-outs.
• Nails: pack sizes and the nailing schedule decide the count. Order extra.
• Hangers and hardware: count from the hanger schedule, not from a guess.

Common Mistakes

• Using the nominal size, not the real size, in a calculation
• Forgetting to subtract the plate thicknesses from the stud length
• Adding the subfloor or ceiling finish twice
• Measuring diagonals from different points
• Ordering sheathing without waste or opening allowances
• Not rechecking the answer against the drawing

Wood Framing: Floor Systems

Written for Canada. Floor framing is covered by NBC 2020 Part 9, Sections 9.23.9 (floor joists), 9.23.4 (spans) and 9.23.15 (subfloor). Spans and sizes come from the span tables or from the engineer or I-joist maker. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

The floor is the platform every other trade stands on. A flat, stiff, quiet floor makes walls plumb, tile stay put and cabinets sit level. A floor that is out by 10 mm at the start is out by more at the roof. This section shows how a floor frame goes together, from sill to subfloor.

How a Floor Is Built

• Sill plate: the treated plate anchored to the foundation wall. It must be at least 38 x 89 mm and bolted with 12.7 mm anchor bolts at 2.4 m spacing, with 100 mm embedment (Confirm in your edition). Seal it from the concrete with a sill gasket.
• Rim joist (band): closes the ends of the floor frame and ties the joists together. It carries the wall load above.
• Joists: run across the span at 300, 400 or 600 mm on centre, crown up. Bearing on wood or steel must be at least 38 mm.
• Beams and posts: support the middle of the span. A beam sits on posts that carry load down to footings.
• Bridging or blocking: Part 9 requires bridging or blocking in sawn joist floors, within 2100 mm of the supports and at no more than 2100 mm apart (Confirm in your edition).
• Subfloor: plywood or OSB glued and nailed over the joists. Minimum thickness is 15.5 mm over 400 mm supports and 18.5 mm over 600 mm supports (Confirm in your edition).

Laying Out Joists

1. Snap a chalk line for the rim joist and sill, and check the foundation for level before anything is cut.
2. Mark the joist layout on the sill and on the beam, starting from one end. Most layouts use 400 mm, and some designs allow 600 mm.
3. Mark the doubled joists under bearing walls, around openings and under tubs and cabinets if the drawing shows them.
4. Check the layout so that the sheet edges of the subfloor land on the middle of a joist.

Placing and Fastening

1. Roll each joist crown up and set it to the layout marks.
2. Nail the rim joist to each joist end with the nails the schedule gives, and toe-nail or use hangers where the drawing shows.
3. Install joist hangers with every hole filled with the nail the hanger maker specifies.
4. Install bridging or blocking, and double the joists under bearing walls.
5. Frame openings for stairs, chimneys and ducts with a header and a doubled trimmer, hung with the right hangers.
6. Set the first row of subfloor with the tongue towards the next course. Glue the top edge of each joist, then nail or screw to the pattern.

Notching and Drilling

• Holes: no larger than a quarter of the joist depth, and no closer than 50 mm to the top or bottom edge (Confirm in your edition).
• Notches: on the top edge only, no deeper than a third of the joist depth, kept away from the middle of the span.
• Never notch the bottom edge: it is the tension side, and a cut there can fail the joist.
• Cantilevers: a 38 x 184 mm joist may cantilever 400 mm and a 38 x 235 mm joist 600 mm in simple cases under Part 9. Anything longer needs a design.
• Plumbing and ducts: ask the plumber and HVAC trades to plan their runs before the joists go in, so no framing is cut afterwards.

Flatness and Squeaks

• Flatness: use a long straightedge across the joists and plane or sister any high or low joists before the subfloor.
• Glue plus fasteners: construction adhesive on every joist reduces squeaks. Screws pull the sheet tight where a nail does not.
• Gaps: leave the panel maker's gap, usually 3 mm, at the sheet edges.

Common Mistakes

• Setting joists crown down or mixed
• Notching or drilling the bottom edge or the middle of the span
• Leaving out hanger nails, or using the wrong nail
• Skipping glue under the subfloor, then chasing squeaks
• Stopping a post on the subfloor instead of on a beam or footing
• Laying the subfloor with the long edges not across the joists
• Forgetting to double the joists under bearing walls and tubs

Wood Framing: Wall Framing

Written for Canada. Wall framing is covered by NBC 2020 Part 9 Section 9.23: studs (9.23.10), plates (9.23.11), openings and lintels (9.23.12) and bracing (9.23.13). Walls carry roof and floor loads, shape the building and resist wind and seismic forces, so they must be built to the drawings. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Wall framing forms the vertical structure of the building. Walls carry roof and floor loads, define spaces, support the envelope and resist sideways forces. This section covers how to frame accurately, safely and to the plans: from plates and studs to standing, bracing and straightening.

1. Wall Types

• Loadbearing walls: carry floors, roofs, beams or trusses.
• Non-loadbearing partitions: divide interior spaces only.
• Exterior walls: carry load and support the envelope.
• Shear and braced walls: resist wind and seismic forces.
• Fire-rated walls: required between units, garages and some rooms.
• Plumbing walls: framed deeper (for example 2x6) to carry pipes.

2. Wall Components

• Bottom plate: anchors the wall to the floor. At least 38 mm thick and as wide as the studs.
• Top plates: at least two in a loadbearing wall, with joints staggered at least one stud space apart and tied at corners and intersections.
• Common studs: vertical members at 400 mm or 600 mm on centre as the drawing says.
• King studs: full-height studs beside an opening.
• Jack (trimmer) studs: support the header at each side.
• Headers: carry the load over an opening.
• Cripple studs: short studs above a header or below a sill.
• Blocking and fire blocking: backing for finishes, shear continuity and fire blocking where required.
• Bracing: temporary bracing during the build and permanent bracing and sheathing as designed.

3. Build the Wall Flat

1. Sort studs, plates, headers, jacks, kings and cripples.
2. Lay both plates on edge, laid out together, and set the studs to the marks with the crown in one direction.
3. Nail through the plate into the stud ends to the nailing schedule (Part 9 gives the nail size and number).
4. Build and set each header, with the jacks and kings at the openings.
5. Install cripples, sills, blocking and fire blocking.
6. Check square by the diagonals, and add a temporary diagonal brace if the wall is long.
7. Sheath on the deck if the plans allow it, with the sheathing nailed to the pattern.

4. Stand and Brace

1. Brief the lift crew: count the crew, assign the order, and keep everyone else clear.
2. Lift together: raise the wall onto the plate line, and keep your feet and body out from under it.
3. Brace at once: fix temporary diagonal braces to the wall and the floor, and plumb as you go.
4. Align and plumb: set the corners first, then straighten the rest to a string line.
5. Fasten: nail the bottom plate to the floor to the schedule and tie the corners and intersections.
6. Install the second top plate: lap it over the first and tie the walls together at the corners.

5. Plumb, Line and Level

• Plumb: check with a 1.8 m level, a plumb bob or a laser. Plumb the corners first, then pull the rest to a string line.
• Straight: run a string line along the top plate at the same height as a gauge block at each end, and straighten bows with braces.
• Level: check that the top plates form a level plane with a laser or level before roof framing.

6. Headers and Openings

• Part 9 allows double studs at an opening where the lintel is 3 m or less, and triple studs where it is longer (Confirm in your edition).
• Dimensional headers: doubled lumber of the size in the lintel tables for small and medium spans.
• Engineered headers: LVL for longer spans. Use the engineer's schedule.
• Bearing: the header must bear fully on the jack studs.
• Garage doors: usually engineered, often tied into a braced portal frame.

7. Tall Walls

• Walls above the Part 9 limit for stud height need an engineer. For example, 38 x 89 mm studs at 400 mm on centre are limited to a stated unsupported height in the Part 9 table (Confirm the table for your load and edition).
• Plan the lift, bracing and temporary support in advance, and have a mid-height brace or blocking where the drawings call for it.

8. Shear and Braced Walls

• Mark the shear walls on the deck before sheathing.
• Install blocking behind panel edges and mid-span where shown.
• Follow the nail size and spacing on the drawings. Edge nailing is closer than field nailing.
• Install hold-downs and straps at the marked locations.

9. Corner and Intersection Details

• Make corner details that give an insulation cavity and a drywall backing surface.
• Add ladder blocking or a flat stud at partition intersections.
• Fire blocking: install fire blocking where the code requires it, for example where a concealed wall space meets a floor or soffit.

Common Mistakes

• Standing a wall without an adequate crew or without bracing
• Not removing the crown or twist from the studs
• Skipping blocking at panel edges, or leaving out hold-downs
• Wrong header size, or a header that does not bear fully on the jacks
• Nailing short or overdriving nails in the plates
• Leaving a wall out of plumb at a corner, then fighting the rest of the building
• Forgetting extra studs under beams and posts

Wood Framing: Roof Systems

Written for Canada. Roof framing is covered by NBC 2020 Part 9, Sections 9.23.14 (roof and ceiling framing) and 9.23.16 (roof sheathing). Trusses are designed by the truss maker and follow their drawings and bracing guide. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

A roof is a framed shape that must shed water, resist snow and wind, and stay attached to the walls. Trusses are quick but cannot be altered. Stick framing (rafters and ceiling joists) is slower but flexible. Both need proper bearing, bracing and ties. Roof work is also where most falls happen, so plan the safety first.

Roof Terms

Choosing Trusses or Stick Framing

• Trusses: built in a plant, fast to set with a crane or telehandler. Long spans, no interior bearing walls needed, but they come with a fixed design and no cutting.
• Stick framing: rafters, ridge board or beam, and ceiling joists or collar ties. Works for cut roofs, dormers and unusual shapes. Heavier, slower, and needs more layout skill.

Setting Trusses

1. Check the walls are plumb, straight and level on the top plates, and that the truss layout is marked.
2. Brace the first truss to the ground or the wall at both ends and in the middle, and plumb it before the next.
3. Lift each truss from the top chord with the correct spreader, and set it on the layout mark.
4. Fasten each truss to the plate with the connector or toe-nails the truss maker shows.
5. Brace as you go with temporary bracing, then install the permanent bracing and web bracing shown on the drawing.
6. Never pile bundles of sheathing on unbraced trusses. Spread loads near a bearing wall only.

Stick Framing

• Ridge: a ridge board or beam at the peak. A ridge beam carries load, a ridge board only holds the rafters in line.
• Rafters: cut with a plumb cut at the ridge, a bird's mouth on the plate and a tail cut at the eave. Bearing on the plate must be at least 38 mm (Confirm in your edition).
• Ceiling joists and ties: tie opposite rafters together so the roof does not push the walls out.
• Collar ties and struts: give lateral support to the rafters and reduce the unsupported span.
• Hips and valleys: carry rafters from different planes. They need bigger members and careful layout.

Roof Sheathing

• Panel size and thickness: Part 9 sets a minimum thickness by rafter or truss spacing (Section 9.23.16, Confirm in your edition).
• Layout: lay the long edge across the supports, stagger the joints, and leave a 3 mm gap at the edges unless the panel is made differently.
• Edge support: use panel clips or blocking where the table requires it.
• Fasteners: ring shank nails or screws at the schedule spacing, flush not overdriven.
• Roof deck protection: install the underlayment and eave protection as soon as possible after the deck is on.

Working Safely on the Roof

• Plan the anchors: install permanent or temporary anchors before the crew goes up, rated and installed to the maker's instructions.
• Handle sheets: plan to lift sheets from the ground with a hoist or a lift, and never carry them across an open edge in wind.
• Stop in wind: high wind and wet or icy surfaces stop roof work.

Common Mistakes

• Walking or loading unbraced trusses
• Cutting or notching a truss web or chord
• Leaving out the ceiling ties so the walls spread
• Bearing a rafter with less than the minimum bearing
• No fall protection plan before climbing up
• Sheathing laid with the joints lined up
• Leaving the deck open to rain for weeks

Wood Framing: Roof Math & Layout

Written for Canada. Roof pitch, rafter length and angles are geometry. They are not code rules, so the numbers here work in every province. What the code controls is the size, spacing and bearing of the members you cut with them. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Roof math is just right-angle triangles. Once you know the rise and the run, every length and angle follows. A framing square, a calculator and a few formulas let you cut a rafter that fits the first time.

Pitch, Rise and Run

• Run: the horizontal distance from the outside of the wall to the centre of the ridge.
• Rise: the vertical height from the top of the plate to the top of the ridge.
• Pitch: the rise for every 12 units of run. A 6 in 12 pitch rises 6 for every 12 of run (about 26.6 degrees). Metric drawings may show the slope as a ratio or an angle.
• Span: twice the run for a simple gable.

Rafter Length

1. Find the run in millimetres.
2. Divide the pitch rise by 12 to get the ratio. For 6 in 12, the ratio is 0.5.
3. Multiply the run by the ratio to get the total rise.
4. Rafter length along the slope = the square root of (run squared plus rise squared).
5. Take off half the thickness of the ridge board, measured along the slope, if a ridge board is used.
6. Add the tail overhang along the slope.

Example: a 3 600 mm run at 6 in 12 gives a rise of 1 800 mm. The rafter length is the square root of (3 600 squared plus 1 800 squared), which is about 4 025 mm before the ridge and tail adjustments.

Cut Angles

• Plumb cut: the angle at the ridge. For 6 in 12 it is about 26.6 degrees from vertical.
• Seat (level) cut: the horizontal cut at the plate. The bird's mouth is a plumb and a seat cut, and the seat must be at least the bearing width the code needs.
• Bird's mouth depth: do not cut more than a third of the rafter depth, so the rafter stays strong.
• Tail cut: plumb or square to the rafter, set by the fascia.

Using a Framing Square and Rafter Tables

• The framing square: the tongue and blade give a 12 unit run and a rise to step off angles.
• Step-off method: clamp stair gauges on the square at the rise and run and walk it up the rafter, one step per 12 units of run. Easy to make an error, so check the first rafter against the layout.
• Speed square: pivot at the pitch mark for the plumb cut and use the common scale for lengths.
• Rafter tables or an app: give a length per foot of run for each pitch. Confirm the answer by a second method.

Hips, Valleys and Jacks

• Hip and valley: run at 45 degrees across the corner and are longer than a common rafter. Their run is the common run times 1.414 (the diagonal of a square), and their length is the square root of (hip run squared plus the same rise), so the cut angles change.
• Jack rafters: run from the hip or valley to the wall or ridge and get shorter by a fixed amount at each step.
• Layout: mark all hips, valleys and jacks from a cut list, test with one rafter, then cut in batches.

Check Your Work

• Cut one, test it: set a pair on the walls and check the ridge height and the fit before cutting the rest.
• Check the plates: the walls must be level and the right width apart or the rafters will not fit.
• Keep a cut sheet: write each length and angle down so a second person can check it.

Common Mistakes

• Measuring the run from the wrong point
• Forgetting the ridge board or beam thickness
• Cutting a too-deep bird's mouth
• Reading the pitch table with the wrong unit
• Cutting all the rafters before testing the first pair
• Forgetting to adjust the length of the hips and jacks
• Marking the plumb cut on the wrong side of the line

Stair Framing & Layout

Written for Canada. Stair dimensions are in NBC 2020 Part 9, Section 9.8. The limits below are the national model code, and your province may change them. Confirm every number in your own code edition before you cut a stringer. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

A stair is the part of a house people use more than any other, and the part where small errors do the most harm. A rise that differs by 6 mm can trip a person. All the risers must match, all the runs must match, and everything must land where the drawing says. The math is simple. The discipline is in measuring from the finished floor.

The Parts of a Stair

Limits to Check in Your Code (Confirm)

• Rise: 200 mm maximum for private stairs in the model code.
• Run: 210 mm minimum, with a tread depth of 235 mm minimum.
• Headroom: 1950 mm minimum in dwelling units, measured plumb above the nosings.
• Width, handrails and guards: set by Section 9.8. Handrails are required on stairs of a certain size, and guards where there is a drop.
• Uniformity: the difference between the largest and smallest rise in one flight must be tiny. Confirm the tolerance in your edition.

Layout in Five Steps

1. Measure the total rise from finished floor to finished floor, not subfloor to subfloor.
2. Divide by a target rise near 180 mm to get the number of risers, then round to a whole number.
3. Divide the total rise by the number of risers to get the exact rise.
4. Choose a run that meets the minimum, and count one fewer tread than riser.
5. Check the total run against the space and the headroom, and adjust before you cut.

Cutting and Setting Stringers

1. Lay out the first stringer with a framing square and stair gauges, then check it against the floor.
2. Drop the bottom of the stringer by the thickness of the tread, and take the same off the first riser, so all risers measure alike after finishing.
3. Cut with a circular saw and finish the inside corners with a handsaw. Never overcut the corners.
4. Use the first stringer as a template for the rest, and check that they match.
5. Leave solid wood in the throat. Confirm the minimum with the drawings.
6. Fasten the top to a header with hangers or a ledger. Anchor the bottom to the floor.
7. Check every riser with a story pole before you install the treads.

Floor Openings and Landings

• Stair openings: frame with a header and doubled trimmers hung with the right hangers.
• Landings: frame as a floor, with joists and blocking sized for the load.
• Fire blocking: at the top and bottom of the stair and in the stringer space. Confirm in your code.

Common Mistakes

• Measuring rise from the subfloor instead of finished floor
• Forgetting the finished tread thickness at the bottom step
• Cutting the stringer too deep, leaving a weak throat
• Unequal risers
• Headroom too low at the top landing
• No solid backing for the handrail
• No fire blocking in the stringer space

Wood Framing: Openings, Cantilevers, Bays & Dormers

Written for Canada. Openings, headers and cantilevers are part of NBC 2020 Part 9 Section 9.23, and fire blocking is in 9.10. Anything wide, heavy or unusual comes from an engineer. Stairs, beams and posts have their own sections in this stage. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Openings, cantilevers, bay windows, bumpouts and dormers are the framing details that break the normal pattern of studs, joists and trusses. Each one carries a concentrated load or opens a hole in a wall or roof that was carrying load. Get the drawing right and keep the load path continuous. For stairs see Stair Framing and Layout, and for beams and posts see Beams, Posts and Point Loads.

Openings, Headers and Cantilevers

• Headers: double studs at each side of an opening where the lintel is 3 m or less, and triple studs where longer (Confirm in your edition).
• King, jack and cripple studs: the king runs full height, the jack carries the header, and cripples fill above and below. See the wall anatomy drawing in Wall Framing.
• Large openings: a wide opening for a patio door or garage door may need an engineered beam.
• Gable and sloped walls: studs above the header are cut to the roof slope. Keep a nailer for the sheathing and the interior finish at every cut edge.
• Cantilevers: allowed only within the Part 9 limits or as designed. Do not stretch a floor out further without a drawing.

Bay Windows, Bumpouts and Dormers

• Bays and bumpouts: are small floors and roofs hung off the main frame. Frame them with the same sealing and insulating care as the main wall, because they have more edges where air and water get in.
• Dormers: break the roof plane. Build the valleys, flashing and framing around the dormer to the drawing, and keep the support path continuous.
• Chimney and skylight openings: frame with doubled members and clearance to combustibles set by the code and the product maker.

Fireblocking and Draftstopping

• Fire blocks: in walls and floors the code requires blocking at set heights and at floor and ceiling levels, to slow fire and smoke spread. Use the blocking the drawing or Section 9.10 shows: Confirm in your edition.

Common Mistakes

• Cutting a header or king stud for services
• Too few jack and king studs for the opening width
• Skipping blocking at chases, soffits and floor lines
• Cantilevering a joist beyond the allowed length
• Hanging a bay window with no continuous support path
• No backing at the cut edges of sloped gable studs
• Leaving a roof or floor opening uncovered

Rough-In Holes, Notches & Trade Coordination

Written for Canada. Notching and drilling of framing are limited by NBC 2020 Part 9 (Section 9.23, Confirm the clause in your edition). Engineered lumber and trusses follow the manufacturer's charts, and any hole outside them needs written approval. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

Plumbers, electricians and heating crews all need to pass pipes, wires and ducts through your frame. If nobody plans it, they cut studs, joists and plates wherever it suits them. That is how a good frame becomes a weak one. A short meeting and a few marked chases before they start is cheaper than a failed inspection.

Who Needs What

• Plumbing: drain, vent and supply lines. Drains need slope, which makes them the hardest to place.
• Electrical: wire runs, boxes and panels. Holes in studs and joists must be in the right place and size.
• Heating and ventilation: ducts, registers and return air. Ducts are large and need open chases.
• Low voltage: data, security and speakers.
• Fire protection: sprinkler pipe in some buildings.

The Basic Rules (Confirm Numbers in Your Code)

• Drilled holes in studs and joists: keep them small, near the centre of the depth, and away from the edges and the ends. Confirm the limits in 9.23.5.
• Notches: notches in the top and bottom edges of joists weaken them most. Limit them as the code says and never notch the middle third of a span.
• Plates and studs in bearing walls: holes and notches reduce strength. Reinforce the stud when the limit is exceeded.
• I-joists and trusses: only the holes and zones on the maker's chart. No cuts to flanges or chords.
• Fire separation walls: penetrations need a listed firestop. See the firestopping section.

Planning Chases and Soffits

1. Walk the plans with the plumber, electrician and heating crew before framing is done.
2. Mark drain runs first, because they need slope. Then ducts, then wires.
3. Frame chases, soffits and bulkheads where ducts must pass joists.
4. Leave space for insulation and the air barrier at pipes and boxes.
5. Add framing and backing for tubs, toilets, cabinets and grab bars.
6. Use sleeves or wide plate holes where large pipes cross.

Walk-Through Before Cover

1. Check every hole against the rules and mark any suspect one for the engineer.
2. Check that firestops and fire blocking are in place.
3. Photograph every wall and ceiling before insulation and board.
4. Have the framing inspection after rough-ins unless your authority says otherwise.

Common Mistakes

• Drilling joists near the end or the bottom edge
• Notching the bottom edge of a joist or the middle of a span
• Cutting a truss web or I-joist flange for a pipe
• No chase planned for a large duct
• Cutting plates and studs in a bearing wall without reinforcing
• Leaving unsealed holes through rated walls
• Covering rough-ins before the inspection

Framing Inspection & Quality Control

Written for Canada. Framing inspections are booked from your building permit and carried out by the building official in your municipality. The model code is NBC 2020 Part 9, adopted with changes by each province. Stage names and notice periods are set locally, so use the list on your own permit. Provinces adopt the code with changes, so the By Province box at the end shows what differs. Measurements are metric first, with imperial in brackets. Anything not yet verified for your province says Confirm.

The framing inspection is the one that sees the most. Once the walls are boarded, nobody can check bearing, bracing, nailing, fire blocking or the load path without tearing something open. A careful self-check the day before saves you the cost of a failed inspection, a re-inspection fee and a crew standing around.

When the Inspection Happens

• Structural framing: after the frame, roof structure and bracing are complete, and usually after plumbing, heating and electrical rough-in has been placed, but before insulation or anything covers the framing. In Toronto, for example, the structural framing inspection follows the plumbing and HVAC rough-in. Confirm the order on your permit.
• Fire separations: walls and ceilings that separate dwelling units or an attached garage, checked before board covers them.
• Insulation and vapour barrier: a later stage, covered in Stage 7.
• Booking: most authorities want notice the day before or earlier and inspect within about two business days. Confirm with your authority.

Papers on Site

1. The permit and the approved drawings, including every revision.
2. The engineer's drawings and any field review letters for beams, posts, hold-downs or shear walls.
3. Truss design drawings and the truss bracing guide, stamped by the manufacturer.
4. Engineered lumber layout drawings and installation guides.
5. Fire separation listings for rated walls and ceilings.

Self-Check Walk, Foundation Up

Sill and floor

1. Sill plate bolted at the spacing and embedment on the drawing, with a sill gasket or sealer under it.
2. Treated lumber used where wood touches concrete.
3. Joist size, spacing and bearing match the drawing, crown up.
4. Hangers have every nail hole filled with the right nail.
5. Bridging or blocking installed where the code or the maker requires it.
6. Holes and notches are in allowed zones. No bottom edge cuts.
7. Beams and posts are on the footings and carry the load straight down.

Walls

1. Studs, plates and openings match the drawing, with the stud size and spacing correct.
2. Top plates doubled and lapped at corners and intersections, joints staggered.
3. Headers, jacks and kings built as drawn, with the right number of studs at each side.
4. Walls plumb, straight and braced, with corners tied.
5. Nailing meets the schedule, with no overdriven or missing nails, especially in braced and shear walls.
6. Hold-downs, straps and anchors installed with the correct fasteners.
7. Fire blocking at floor and ceiling lines, in soffits and at stair stringers.
8. Drilled holes and notches in studs are within the allowed limits.

Roof

1. Truss drawings on site and trusses match their positions.
2. Bearing and connectors at every truss, with girder trusses hung as drawn.
3. Temporary bracing replaced with permanent bracing as the truss drawing shows.
4. Rafters, ridge, ties and collar ties as drawn, with bearing at least the minimum.
5. No cut, drilled or notched trusses or truss webs.
6. Roof sheathing thickness, edge gaps and nailing as required.

Services

1. Plumbing, heating and electrical rough-in are in place and did not cut structure.
2. Penetrations through rated assemblies have a firestop plan.
3. Space is left for the insulation and vapour barrier that follow.

What Gets Failed Most Often

• Missing hanger nails and wrong nails in hangers
• Notched or drilled joists, studs and plates outside the limits
• Missing fire blocking
• Bracing and nailing not as drawn
• Trusses altered or missing permanent bracing
• Posts not bearing on a footing or beam
• No drawings or letters on site
• Work covered before the inspection

Keep a Record

• Photograph every wall, floor and roof area before cover, with a tape in view.
• Mark and date the inspection report and file it with the permit set.
• Fix every item before you ask for a re-inspection, and write what you did.

Common Mistakes

• Calling for the inspection before the trades have finished
• Starting insulation or board before the inspector has passed the frame
• Having no stamped truss or engineer drawings on site
• Missing hanger nails and fire blocking
• Leaving temporary bracing in place of permanent bracing
• Arguing with the inspector instead of asking what code article applies
• Not writing down the corrections